JTE v2n1 - Design and Technology in the United Kingdom
Volume 2, Number 1
Fall 1990
Design and Technology in the United Kingdom
Stephanie Atkinson
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
"Handicraft" was a recognized subject in
the national education system of the United
Kingdom (UK) almost a century ago. But it is
only in the past sixty years that the curric-
ulum area we in the UK now call "Design and
Technology" has progressed from single mate-
rial, craft-skill based courses for the less
able to a thinking, feeling, doing activity
drawing on and linking with a wide range of
subject bases for all pupils of compulsory
school age. In comparison to many subjects
in the current school curriculum, Design and
Technology is still in its infancy.
Unfortunately the English language has
no single word like "literacy" or "numeracy"
which might denote the activities which go on
in Design and Technology. Over the years,
this has had unfortunate consequences for
those trying to establish and build up this
important subject.
The subject which started out as
Handicraft has over the years developed and
evolved to encompass a growing range of ac-
tivities. Early Handicraft teachers were
usually classroom teachers who became
craftsmen, or practicing craftsmen who, by
taking a short course, obtained a qualifica-
tion to teach only that subject. Its very
name has altered from "Handicraft," to
"Woodwork," "Metalwork," "Manual Training,"
"Craft," "Technical Subjects," "Design,"
"Craft, Design and Technology" (CDT), and now
"Design and Technology." Its status and its
place in the overall school curriculum has
also changed as a result of these develop-
ments.
To many, the pace of development has ap-
peared to be slow. For the first fifty
years, courses in manual training were pro-
vided in certain schools for less academ-
ically able boys, while girls were allowed to
study Domestic Science and Sewing, with lit-
tle or no alteration as to how or what was
delivered.
The changes that took place in the UK
economy after World War II required a sub-
stantial increase in the skilled labor force.
This, in turn, led to an increase in the
craft and technical training that was pro-
vided for the less academic in secondary
schools, albeit essentially for male pupils.
The lack of curriculum development in
school based Craft Education was recognized
in 1959 by C.P. Snow, who argued that the
traditional values of literary culture were
dominating education at the expense of sci-
ence and technology. He argued that the UK
would decline as a world power if the balance
was not redressed (Snow, 1964; Weiner, 1986;
McCulloch, Jenkins, & Layton, 1986).
It was not until the 1970s that changes
in society became so marked that they brought
inescapable pressure upon those responsible
for the pattern of education in the UK to de-
velop a new philosophy with regard to the ed-
ucation of future generations. One of the
main thrusts of those taking an interest in
education at this time was towards the need
for pupils to possess a greater understanding
and awareness of technology, its future im-
plications, its potential, and its exploita-
tion. Therefore, it is not surprising that
the technical subjects were among the curric-
ulum areas to be scrutinized nationally by
government.
It became increasingly understood by Her
Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI), industrialists,
the Design Council, educationists and forward
thinking teachers that a change in what was
provided in technical subjects was essential
(Aylward, 1973; Design Council, 1980; Arnold,
1975). There was also considerable agreement
among them that this aspect of education
should be accessible for all pupils.
It was at this time that changes to this
area of the curriculum at last became appar-
ent (Hargreaves, 1984). The name of the sub-
ject changed. Instead of being called
Woodwork, Metalwork, Engineering Practice,
etc., there was a merger of the more resist-
ant materials (wood, metal and plastics) into
Craft, Design and Technology (Breckon &
Prest, 1983). The content of courses changed
too (Kimbell, 1986; Department of Education &
Science, 1980; Inspectorate of Schools,
Craft, Design & Technology, 1983). No longer
were pupils taught only craft skills; they
were also encouraged to design whatever they
made (Harahan, 1978). At the same time, ac-
cess to the subject in lower secondary
schools (ages11-14) was improved. Pupils of
all ability were scheduled to participate in
the new courses (Kimbell, 1982; Royal College
of Art, Department of Design Research, 1976).
In many instances these courses were organ-
ized into modules which pupils took on a ro-
tational basis. These courses were nicknamed
"roundabouts" or "circuses." As well as al-
lowing each pupil to experience as wide a va-
riety of materials and skills as the school
could provide, these courses forced girls to
have access to 'boys' subjects and boys to
have access to 'girls' subjects. It was
hoped that this would have the effect of en-
couraging more girls to study technological
subjects at the option stage when pupils were
allowed to choose between subjects.
The pity was that two different "camps"
formed among educationists (Baynes, 1976;
Cross, Naughton, & Walker, 1986; Cross,
1986). Those who saw creative designing as
the necessary route forward, and those who
believed in a need for hard technology and a
sound knowledge base. The two polarized
factions were not ready to cope with the con-
cept of these two important facets of the
curriculum being amalgamated into one. Nor
could they easily accept that what went on in
the Home Economics and Dressmaking areas of
the curriculum might also have a part to play
in Design and Technology education. As CDT
was not representing "the whole" of design in
this sense, it failed to present the united
front necessary to persuade academics,
educationists, or industrialists that it was
essential to have this area of the curriculum
as a core subject for all pupils.
During the 1970s and early part of the
1980s, this lack of clarity of message by HMI
and prominent educationists continued to pre-
vent CDT from securing a major role in the
academic core of the school curriculum. This
was further accentuated at a grass roots
level by the teaching staff of CDT, Technol-
ogy, Art, and Design attempting to protect
what they perceived to be their individual
subject boundaries. Conflicting pictures of
the rank importance of CDT, hard technology,
craft skills, design skills, the place of
scientific knowledge, etc., prevented devel-
opment of the subject (Cross & McCormick,
1986).
There continued to be educational oppo-
sition from senior members of staff in
schools towards CDT, as it was still equated
with vocational training for the academ-
ically less able. The Senior Management
Teams within the schools, who were mainly
made up of academics, with beliefs based on
their own school experience, still saw intel-
lectual work as of high status and manual
work as of low status. Science Departments
were also concerned with CDT's expectation of
equal status. At this time, activities in
many CDT departments were rightfully seen as
secondary to, and dependant upon, basic sci-
ence (Woolnough, 1986).
Other factors which affected this area
of the curriculum were costs for necessary
hardware, materials, and the staff and pupil
related scheduling costs. These continue to
be significant issues today as Local Finan-
cial Management of schools comes into
effect.(1) Difficulties with assessment, low
accreditation value, shortage of well trained
teachers, and the fact that this area of the
curriculum was offered under more labels at
examination level than any other subject in
the curriculum were additional aspects that
caused concern. And yet it was against this
backcloth that a positive change in attitude
towards Design and Technology education
started to emerge (Assessment of Performance
Unit, 1981).
A debate regarding education in general
was beginning to come to the front; up to
----------------
1 Local Financial Management is part of Lo-
cal Management Structure (LMS). It is
being implemented in all state schools in
the UK. At school level, it marks a
change from local administration manage-
ment to local management delegation by
Local Education Authorities.
this moment in time, education within schools
had not been related to the outside world
(Department of Education and Science, 1980;
TRIST, 1987a; TRIST, 1987b). In fact, de-
spite attempts, it appeared that there had
been a failure to recognize the necessity to
do so. Many believe that the UK lives by
trade therefore they must succeed by trade.
The continuing economic decline of the UK
added strength to the educational movement,
which supported curriculum development. Ad-
ditional impetus came from industrialists
with influence and/or the ability to inject
money into the system. The Technical and Vo-
cational Educational Initiative (TVEI), new
examination systems, the National Curriculum,
Local Financial Management (Department of Ed-
ucation and Science, 1988) and Equal Opportu-
nities are just a few of the recent
initiatives that have proved that, although
AD HOC subject-based curriculum models devel-
oped by grass root teachers are an important
process, large scale national intervention
can cause mountains to be moved quickly. Al-
most too quickly for some!
NATIONAL INTERVENTIONS
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL INITI-
ATIVE (TVEI)
TVEI influenced the whole curriculum of
many secondary schools. It was set up as a
pilot scheme in 1983 with 14 Local Education
Authorities (LEA's) taking part. Its purpose
was to help prepare pupils aged 14-18 for the
demands of working life. In 1986, the gov-
ernment, supported by industry, announced its
intention to offer funds to all LEA's to take
part in the Initiative. The exact nature and
content of plans were determined by LEA's and
took into account their own needs and circum-
stances. The National Aims of TVEI sought to
encourage close collaboration between LEA's
and industry/commerce/public services etc.,
so that the school curriculum gained the con-
fidence of industrialists (TVEI, 1987;
Leicestershire County Council, 1987).
TVEI still in effect supports the aim
that pupils in school need to:
o gain the qualifications which will be of
direct value to them at work;
o become better equipped to enter the world
of employment;
o acquire an appreciation of the practical
application of the qualifications for
which they are working;
o become accustomed to using their skills
and knowledge to solve real-world prob-
lems; and
o develop initiative, motivation and enter-
prise.
THE EFFECT OF TVEI UPON DESIGN AND TECH-
NOLOGY. One effect of TVEI upon Design and
Technology education has been the injection
of money from industry enabling change to
take place. This has provided much needed
hardware, often in the form of computers, at
limited cost to schools. TVEI has also pro-
moted a holistic approach to the design proc-
ess carried out by pupils, encouraging
business awareness and industrial links.
This, in turn, has brought its rewards to the
schools concerned, often in the form of ex-
pertise and equipment.
THE NEW EXAMINATIONS AT THE END OF COMPULSORY
EDUCATION
GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCA-
TION (GCSE). Until 1987, pupils in the UK
were examined in two separate systems at the
age of sixteen: the General Certificate of
Education (GCE) and the Certificate of Sec-
ondary Education (CSE) examinations. GCE was
for the top 20% of pupils while CSE was de-
signed to cater to the next 60% of pupils.
In fact CSE was usually attempted by the ma-
jority of the pupils who did not take exam-
inations at GCE level. (SCUE, SCDC, SEC &
CNA, 1987; Department of Education and Sci-
ence, 1985)
After 1987, these two examination sys-
tems were replaced by GCSE, operated as a
single system and open to all. It was intro-
duced after many trials of new approaches to
tackle weaknesses in the GCE/CSE two-tiered
system.
In addition to this form of academic
discrimination, there had been many inadequa-
cies in the old two-tier examination system,
other than this including:
o the difficulty in changing from one sys-
tem to another
o the fact that two years work was assessed
in one or two examination papers which
gave a bias towards teaching that could
be examined in timed written papers; and
o syllabi called for learning facts at the
expense of understanding or using infor-
mation.
These latter two points were felt to be par-
ticularly important by teachers who wrote ex-
aminations for Design and Technology because
of the very nature of the activities in-
volved. In addition, employers of those
leaving school and those pupils who changed
schools during courses found that examina-
tions with the same title did not necessarily
include the same content, levels of achieve-
ment, or expectations of the pupils.
There was also a serious mismatch be-
tween employers and teachers in terms of ac-
ceptability. Employers, the majority of whom
had left school long before CSE examinations
had been established, never accepted top CSE
qualifications as equal to GCE. However,
many teachers preferred CSE as they were pro-
fessionally involved in the development of
these examinations, and consequently were
able to tailor them to their requirements.
The introduction of the new single exam-
ination system, however, caused many prob-
lems. The new system had to be 'marketed' to
staff, pupils, parents and future employers
who all remembered the difficulties with the
acceptance of CSE. The new philosophy of
GCSE and the new approaches to assessment re-
quired a great deal of in-service training
for teachers in order to manage a curriculum
to support a single subject examination sys-
tem.
In preparation for GCSE, National Crite-
ria were established for all subjects to give
a uniform framework for examinations and
syllabi. This was a major step forward in
the UK examination system. The published
list of National Criteria aims and objectives
explained what students studying courses in
all curriculum areas should seek to achieve.
One important and very positive aspect
of GCSE was to establish the philosophy that
all syllabi must help pupils in schools to
understand a subject's relationship to other
areas of the curriculum and its relevance to
their own lives and responsibilities. Also,
in GCSE, assessment was no longer to be by
examination alone. At least 20% of candi-
dates' marks were to come from coursework,
either in the form of project work or by con-
tinuous assessment of pupils' regular class-
room activities. In the past, examinations
had tended to record what candidates could
not do rather than what they could do. GCSE
aimed to assess positive achievement.
THE EFFECT OF GCSE ON DESIGN AND TECH-
NOLOGY. GCSE allowed the development of ex-
amination courses that were far more suitable
for assessing Design and Technology capabil-
ity than the traditional mode of examination
could ever hope to achieve. Some examina-
tions [eg. Midlands Examining Group (MEG) De-
sign](2) were purely an assessment of
coursework. Others had a balance between
coursework and written examinations. GCSE
allowed schools to continue, during the exam-
ination years, with the type of work done in
the lower secondary (age 11-14) Design and
Technology curriculum. This is also similar
to the philosophy advocated in the new Na-
tional Curriculum.
THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM (NC)
One of the most important changes in ed-
ucation brought about by the Government's Ed-
ucation Reform Act of 1988 was the
introduction of a National Curriculum for
children aged 5-16 in all state schools in
England and Wales (National Curriculum Coun-
cil, 1989; Department of Education and Sci-
ence, 1985, 1987a, 1987b). The purpose of
the National Curriculum is to ensure that all
children study essential subjects, thus pro-
viding a better all around education. It is
designed to ensure that children cannot opt
out of subjects too early, and thereby close
doors to future job opportunities and per-
sonal development. Progression from the Pri-
mary phase to Secondary should offer much
more continuity for pupils in terms of style,
structure and content of education. It
----------------
2 England, Wales, and Northern Ireland are
divided into 6 regional examination
groups. These groups are responsible to
the Secondary Examination Advisory Coun-
cil (SEAC) for the organization and as-
sessment of GCSE Examinations (Scotland
has its own educational and examination
system).
should also make it easier for children to
move from one school to another.
The National Curriculum consists of 10
subjects which all children must study at
school: English, Mathematics, Science, Tech-
nology,(3) History, Geography, Music, Art,
Physical Education, and a modern language
from ages 11-16. For each subject there are
objectives or goals outlining what children
should know and be able to do at each stage
of their schooling. These objectives are
called "attainment targets." For each sub-
ject there are also descriptors and programs
of study detailing what children should be
taught in order to help them achieve the at-
tainment targets set. At ages 7, 11, 14, and
16 students are assessed with regard to the
attainment targets. Their performance is
measured on a ten point scale.
There are 4 stages for different educa-
tional age groups, known as "key stages."
These should help pupils, parents, and staff
to know what each child should learn at vari-
ous ages. The key stages are:
o Key Stage 1 - from age 5 to 7
o Key Stage 2 - from age 7 to 11
o Key Stage 3 - from age 11 to 14
o Key Stage 4 - from age 14 to 16
The National curriculum is not the total
curriculum for the child, but rather a funda-
mental framework. It is for each school to
decide mechanisms for delivery and additional
subjects they wish to provide. By law each
school in the public sector must provide the
National Curriculum.
THE EFFECT OF THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM ON
DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY. The government's Stat-
utory Orders concerning Design and Technol-
ogy, were published in April 1990. They must
by law be taught from September 1990 starting
with Key Stage 1.
Design and Technology has been made one
of the two "profile components" of the foun-
dation subject area Technology. The other
----------------
3 Technology in the National Curriculum is
composed of two areas of study, Design
and Technology and Information Technol-
ogy.
profile component is Information Technology
(IT).(4) It is intended that these components
are not seen as discrete subjects, but more a
set of attainment targets that will need to
be serviced by a wide variety of curriculum
areas.
One of the most far reaching effects of
the NC is the fact that all pupils from 5-16
will have to be taught the necessary informa-
tion and skills, with the emphasis on process
rather than content, to be able to achieve
the appropriate attainment targets. In the
case of Design and Technology, schools will
not be able to decide that they do not wish
to provide this area of the curriculum. De-
sign and Technology, is required by law for
all pupils of all abilities, ages and inter-
ests. No longer will it be taught just to
those who choose the subject because they are
interested in it, or to those who see its
relevance to their future occupations. Design
and Technology will become something quite
different from that Design and Technology to
offered in the past, as its content must now
be relevant to all. It must have broadly
based transferable skills making it a prepa-
ration for life, not for a vocation.
To meet the legal requirements of the
Orders, Design and Technology will not be
able to be the province of a single depart-
ment, let alone the province of a single sub-
ject. A number of WORKING PARTY REPORTS were
published for consultation before the Statu-
tory Orders were finally written (National
Curriculum Design and Technology Working
Group, 1988; Department of Education and Sci-
ence, 1989; National Curriculum Council,
1989). One of these reports, the INTERIM RE-
PORT, set out to explain the new philosophy.
It established that in order to deliver the
NC the curriculum areas of CDT, Home Econom-
ics, Art and Design, Business Studies and In-
----------------
4 IT capability in the NC is cross curric-
ula. Pupils will use IT to; communicate
and handle information; design, develop,
explore and evaluate models of real or
imaginary situations; measure and control
physical variables and movement; and be
able to make informed judgements with re-
gard to applications and their effect on
society.
formation Technology all have to work
together as a team being aware of and build-
ing upon knowledge gained in other curriculum
areas such as Sciences, Mathematics, and Hu-
manities. Cross-curricula activities and
links will be essential to achieve many of
the Design and Technology programs of study.
This is going to require teachers who are
willing to work as part of teams and teachers
who are able to work in partnership alongside
teachers who possess differing skills and ex-
pertise.
Information Technology (IT) has a spe-
cial role to play in Design and Technology,
but it is not its only role. The STATUTORY
ORDERS FOR TECHNOLOGY explain that like De-
sign and Technology, Information Technology
is not a discrete subject. The aim is to use
IT as a tool in whatever context it is
needed. All graduates should be unafraid of
computers and be able to cope with whatever
computer technology comes their way in the
future.
INDUSTRIAL CONTEXTS AND LINKS IN DESIGN
AND TECHNOLOGY / NATIONAL CURRICULUM . It is
envisaged that industrial links established
through TVEI will be strengthened and that
the good practice established under this
scheme will filter into all Design and Tech-
nology activity even in the primary sector
(age 5 - 11). The NC's inclusion of Business
Studies into Design and Technology activities
allows the design process to be more
holistic.
PUPIL'S LEARNING STRATEGIES IN DESIGN
AND TECHNOLOGY / NATIONAL CURRICULUM . The
NC suggests learning strategies that require
pupils to carry out a needs-driven design ac-
tivity. There is an emphasis on process and
on HOW pupils will learn as well as WHAT they
will learn. Design and Technology is to be
an activity subject, designing, making and
evaluating, systems, environments and pro-
ducts. Projects are to be set in a number of
different contexts that are relevant to all
pupils. Pupils will need to work in a variety
of ways; as individuals, as part of teams on
one project, and as part of groups on indi-
vidual tasks. The skills that will be re-
quired for a pupil to achieve a task will be
on a "need to use basis." This is where the
teacher with single subject expertise will be
an essential "commodity." Pupils will learn
that Design and Technology is all about opti-
mization and opportunities and that not ev-
erything is a problem to be solved.
TEACHING STRATEGIES IN DESIGN AND
TECHNOLOGY/NATIONAL CURRICULUM. As with all
the NC subjects, progression is an important
issue. It is hoped that pupils will not re-
peat aspects of work in a variety of curric-
ulum areas nor if they change schools. It is
also hoped that the NC will prevent pupils
missing vital areas of knowledge or experi-
ence either because they have not been in-
cluded in a subject area or because a school
chooses not to tackle them. It is envisaged
that knowledge gained in other curriculum
areas, particularly in Science and Maths,
will be put into context in Design and Tech-
nology.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL CURRIC-
ULUM FOR STAFF DEVELOPMENT. The implications
for training for teachers is tremendous.
Many teachers, both those who understand the
new philosophy and those who do not, are go-
ing to need a great deal of support. All
teachers will need to be facilitators rather
than founts of knowledge. Managers for both
the curriculum and for teams of staff will be
required. Monitoring individual pupils'
progress will require a new approach. Assess-
ment of work carried out by pupils at all the
Key Stages could cause many challenges and
difficulties.
In-service requirements are going to
come in two forms: those aspects which the
school can deal with in-house, such as team
management, learning to work together in
teams, trusting one another and accepting
that no one person can deliver Design and
Technology, and in-service supplied by out-
side agencies (Technology Education Develop-
ment Unit, 1990; LIST, 1990). It will be
necessary to develop an understanding of the
new Design and Technology philosophy in a
wider than single school context. In-service
will be needed to help overcome many teach-
ers' fears that they will not be able to cope
with implementing the new Design and Tech-
nology curriculum. There will also be an on
going need for in-service from outside agen-
cies to update teachers' expertise in areas
of technology as yet unknown or missing from
the individual school teams of Design and
Technology teachers.
CONCLUSION
Educational developments within curric-
ulum areas cannot be seen in isolation. The
large scale intervention of Government and
Industry into the UK educational system has
brought about fast changes across the total
curriculum, culminating in the sharp focus of
the National Curriculum.
Many valued, experienced teachers in the
UK, not only of Design and Technology but
across the total school curriculum, are feel-
ing the pressures of these changes. These
feelings are understandable. Teachers have
recently become surrounded by a plethora of
educational developments far beyond their
curriculum area, which they must discuss, in-
itiate, respond to, administer, and assess.
The UK is at the beginning of a new era
in education in which the National Curriculum
will hopefully give all pupils equal
entitlement to a better, all around educa-
tion. For Design and Technology, it is a
time of major opportunity. Teachers will need
to seize this opportunity to develop and de-
liver this vital area of the curriculum in a
coherent form that will be accepted by the
whole of the educational fraternity. They
will need to capitalize on the good practice
which already exists in schools. The Na-
tional Curriculum will not be something that
can be implemented overnight. It was begun in
the primary schools in September 1989 in Sci-
ence, English and Mathematics. In September
1990, Technology (with its two profile compo-
nents, Design and Technology and Information
Technology) will begin to be taught. But it
will not be until the mid-1990s that the full
National Curriculum is expected to be imple-
mented.
Many teachers are afraid of the impend-
ing changes. A great deal of in-service work
will be needed to help staff cope with the
philosophy, management, assessment, and extra
work load. Teachers will need to be careful
that they ensure that those specialists who
feel vulnerable working within this new sys-
tem understand the important contribution
they are able to make. It is likely that
these vulnerable teachers will be those who
were trained as Craft teachers and have al-
ready struggled with differing degrees of
success to become CDT teachers during the
1970s and 1980s. The profession will lose
some of these teachers if they are made to
feel that their skills are no longer rele-
vant. It will be important for teachers to
see that although pupils will be working
across the full spectrum of Design and Tech-
nology, activity teachers with special exper-
tise will be needed to prevent the subject
becoming shallow and rigorless. All teachers
will need a generic grasp of technology.
They will also need an understanding of the
variety of methods of delivering Design and
Technology that are envisaged in the NC pro-
posals.
Teachers in the UK see the need for, and
the advantages of the National Curriculum
framework. Design and Technology teachers
understand the need for the changes that are
envisaged, accepting the challenges offered
to them, and recognizing the important role
of Design and Technology within a holistic
context. The challenges and opportunities to
teachers and pupils alike are exciting. De-
sign and Technology can and will play a spe-
cial role in preparing pupils for life,
enabling them to cope with the technological
uncertainties of the 21st century. It will
be during the next few years that teachers
will need to develop and refine further mech-
anisms to deliver and assess this vital area
of the school curriculum.
----------------
Stephanie Atkinson is Senior Lecturer, De-
partment of Education, Sunderland
Polytechnic,
Sunderland, England.
REFERENCES
Arnold, E. (1975). School council design
and craft education project. EDUCATION
THROUGH DESIGN AND CRAFT. London:
Arnold.
Assessment of Performance Unit. (1981).
UNDERSTANDING DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY.
London: APU.
Aylward, B. (1973). DESIGN EDUCATION IN
SCHOOLS. London: Evans.
Baynes, K. (1976). ABOUT DESIGN. London:
Design Council Publications.
Breckon, A., & Prest, D. (1983). INTRODUC-
ING CRAFT, DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY. London:
Hutchinson.
Cross, A. & McCormick, B. (1986). TECHNOL-
OGY IN SCHOOLS. Milton Keynes: Open Uni-
versity Press.
Cross, N., Naughton, J., & Walker, D.
(1986). Design method and scientific
method. In Cross, A., & McCormick, B.,
TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS (pp. 21-33). Milton
Keynes: Open University Press.
Cross, A. (1986). Towards an understanding
of the intrinsic values of design educa-
tion. In Cross, A., & McCormick, B.,
TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS (pp. 10 4-121).
Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Department of Education and Science. (1987).
CURRICULUM MATTERS 9: CRAFT, DESIGN AND
TECHNOLOGY. London: HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1985).
CURRICULUM MATTERS 2: THE CURRICULUM FROM
5 - 16. London: HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1988).
LOCAL MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS. London:
HMSO.
Department of Education and Science. (1989).
DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY FOR AGES 5 - 16.
London: HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1980).
A FRAMEWORK FOR SCHOOL CURRICULUM.
London: HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1985).
GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
London: HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1987).
THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM 5 - 16. London:
HMSO Publications.
Department of Education and Science. (1980).
CRAFT DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
SOME SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES. London: HMSO.
Design Council edited by Harahan, J. (1978).
DESIGN IN GENERAL EDUCATION. London:
Heinmann.
Design Council. (1980). DESIGN EDUCATION AT
SECONDARY LEVEL, (Design Council Report).
London: Author.
Hargreaves, D. H. (1984). Committee on the
curriculum and organisation of secondary
schools. IMPROVING SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
London: ILEA.
Inspectorate of Schools, Craft, Design and
Technology Committee. (1983). CDT, A
CURRICULUM STATEMENT FOR 11-16+ AGE GROUP.
London: Department of Education and Sci-
ence.
Kimbell, R. (1982). DESIGN EDUCATION -
FOUNDATION YEARS. London: Routledge,
Keegan Paul.
Kimbell, R. (Ed.). (1986). GCSE A GUIDE FOR
TEACHERS CRAFT DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY.
Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Leicestershire County Coucil. (1986). TVEI
NEWSLETTER, Leicestershire County Council.
LIST. (1990). PREPARING FOR NATIONAL CUR-
RICULUM - TECHNOLOGY. Loughborough Uni-
versity, Department of Design and
Technology.
McCulloch, G., Jenkins, E., & Layton, D.
(1986). Technological revolution? In A.
Cross, & B. McCormick (Eds.), TECHNOLOGY
IN SCHOOLS (pp. 95-103). Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.
National Curriculum Design and Technology
Working Group. (1988). ITERIM REPORT.
London: HMSO Publications.
National Curriculum Council. (1989). AN IN-
TRODUCTION TO THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM.
Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
National Curriculum Council. (1989). CON-
SULTATION REPORT - TECHNOLOGY. York:
NCC.
Royal College of Art, Department of Design
Research. (1976). DESIGN EDUCATION IN
GENERAL EDUCATION. (A report of the Sum-
mer School 1976). London: RCA.
SCUE, SCDC, SEC, & CNAA. (1987). CURRENT
DEVELOPMENTS IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND EX-
AMINATIONS. London: Standing Conference
of University Enterance.
Snow, C. P. (1964). THE TWO CULTURES: AND A
SECOND LOOK: AN EXPANDED VERSION OF 'THE
TWO CULTURES AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVO-
LUTION'. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Technology Education Development Unit.
(1990). Preparing for Secondary Design
and Technology in the National Curriculum,
Salford University.
TRIST. (1987a). ECONOMIC AWARENESS ACROSS
THE CURRICULUM (Paper of National Interest
No.1). Sheffield: Manpower Services Com-
mission.
TRIST. (1987b). EDUCATION AND BUSINESS
PARTNERSHIP, (Paper of National Interest
No. 5). Sheffield: Manpower Services
Commission.
TVEI. (1987). TVEI REVIEW 85 Sheffield:
Manpower Services Commission.
Weiner, M. J. (1986). English culture and
the decline of the industrial spirit
1850-1980. In Cross, A., & McCormick, B.,
TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS, (pp. 57-69).
Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Woolnough, B. E. (1986). The place of tech-
nology in schools. In A. Cross, & B.
McCormick (Eds.), TECHNOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
(pp. 155-161). Milton Keynes: Open Uni-
versity Press.
Permission is given to copy any
article or graphic provided credit is given and
the copies are not intended for sale.
Journal of Technology Education Volume 2, Number 1 Fall 1990