JTE v3n1 - Retaining Teachers in Technology Education: Probable Causes, Possible Solutions
Volume 3, Number 1
Fall 1991
Retaining Teachers in Technology Education: Probable Causes, Possible Solutions
Michael D. Wright
The International Technology Education
Association's (ITEA) Professional Improvement
Plan called for a study that would address
the technology education teacher retention
problem. As a result, ITEA Task Force E con-
ducted a national survey of state supervisors
of technology education and ITEA affiliated
association presidents to determine probable
causes and identify possible actions that
could be taken to remedy the situation.
TEACHER RETENTION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The scope of educational activities that
should take place in schools has been, and
continues to be, a matter of controversy.
Most people involved with public schools
agree that a major objective of schools is to
promote the scholastic achievement of the
students (Goodlad, 1984). There is little
doubt that teachers are directly involved in
the academic progress of their students.
Research has established that a re-
lationship exists between teacher satisfac-
tion and student achievement (Doyle &
Forsyth, 1973; Goodman, 1980; and, Stanton,
1974). In general, the findings tended to
indicate that teachers in secondary schools
whose students achieve relatively high scho-
lastically had higher morale than did teach-
ers in schools with relatively low pupil
achievement. Similarly, student achievement
tended to increase under teachers with high
morale and decreased under teachers with low
morale.
It appears that teacher morale or satis-
faction does make a difference in the scho-
lastic achievement of students. For this
reason, teacher satisfaction and a closely
related issue, the retention of qualified
teachers, has been a concern for several dec-
ades. The literature review progresses from
very broad, theory-oriented research to more
specific studies concerned with technology
teachers. The term "technology teacher" will
be used as a generic term to include indus-
trial arts, industrial education, industrial
technology, technology education and related
fields.
JOB SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS
Historically, job satisfaction was
viewed as a continuum. Certain factors, if
present, contributed to job satisfaction; and
if absent, contributed to job dissatisfac-
tion, and vice-versa. Herzberg, Mausner, and
Snyderman (1959) developed what has been
called the Two-Factor Theory of job satisfac-
tion or the Motivation-Hygiene Theory. In
contrast to conventional theory at the time,
Herzberg concluded there were certain condi-
tions of employment that, if present, acted
as job satisfiers (motivators) and other con-
ditions that acted as job dissatisfiers (hy-
giene factors). The absence of motivators
did not contribute to job dissatisfaction,
nor did the absence of hygiene factors con-
tribute to job satisfaction or motivation.
Fourteen factors were identified as contrib-
uting to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
The factors identified were: achievement, re-
cognition, interpersonal relations, responsi-
bility, advancement, salary, job security,
personal life, status, working conditions,
policy and administration, supervision, and
the work itself. Herzberg believed these
factors to be universal in the workplace.
Several research studies have attempted
to replicate and/or apply Herzberg's (1959)
famous "Motivation to Work" study in educa-
tional settings. Johnson (1967) identified
five factors (achievement, recognition,
interpersonal relations, work itself, and re-
sponsibility) that had statistical signif-
icance in affecting teacher satisfaction.
Four factors (policy and administration,
working conditions, status, and personal
life) were significant in affecting teacher
dissatisfaction. Johnson suggested that
"...the personality of the principal seemed
to be the factor which controlled the atti-
tude of teachers" and that "the findings of
this study indicated that the organizational
climate of schools contributed to teacher
satisfaction--dissatisfaction" (p. 139).
Sergiovanni (1966), in another repli-
cation of Herzberg's study in an educational
setting, interviewed teachers to find out
about events associated with their jobs that
made them feel unusually good and unusually
bad. According to Sergiovanni's classifica-
tion of the teachers' responses, achievement
and recognition were ranked first and second
as factors contributing to good feelings
about the job.
Robert Simmons (1970) found three "con-
tent" factors (achievement in the job, the
work itself, and recognition) that contribute
to satisfaction in teaching. Achievement in
teaching contributed most to satisfaction.
Recognition from the principal was determined
to be a significant part of the recognition
factor.
In a study of job satisfaction that fo-
cused on high school business teachers in
Ohio, Lacy (1968) identified 27 factors that
were significant for a high level of teacher
job satisfaction. School administration was
found to affect teacher job satisfaction.
That is, teachers with a high level of job
satisfaction indicated, "[they] received re-
cognition for a job well done ... adminis-
trators had democratic methods of dealing
with teachers" (p. 222).
Graham (1985) believes that unreasonable
burdens and too little time drive more people
from the teaching profession than low sala-
ries. According to Graham, an approach that
would make a big difference would be to reor-
ganize teachers' days and priorities to save
precious time that is lost. The suggestions
offered by Graham centered primarily around
working conditions: reduce class size, pro-
vide clerical help, reduce non-reaching ac-
tivities, give every teacher a student
assistant, seek help from parents, and pro-
vide monthly, non-teaching work days.
Litt and Turk (1985) surveyed high
school teachers to identify sources of stress
and dissatisfaction that might induce teach-
ers to leave teaching. The results suggested
that "the role teachers perceived for them-
selves and the school climate, particularly
the relationship with administrators, may be
extremely important in predicting job stress"
(p.178).
The "context" aspects of work (e.g.,
working conditions, school policy, and sal-
ary) identified by numerous studies, serve
only to reduce dissatisfaction in the lower-
order needs identified by Maslow (1954); they
cannot lead to growth or satisfaction. The
"content" aspects of teaching (e.g. achieve-
ment, recognition, and the work itself) cor-
respond to esteem and self-actualization, the
top of Maslow's hierarchy. Psychological
growth and satisfaction depend upon success-
ful job completion, so only those factors
that are content centered (intrinsic aspects
of teaching) can contribute to satisfaction.
TECHNOLOGY TEACHER SATISFACTION
Technology teachers have an instruc-
tional role that is different from many other
teachers. The nature of their teaching is
primarily the problem-solving approach, fre-
quently utilizing one-on-one instruction.
Technology teachers tend to develop a sense
of "ownership" over their labs, partly due to
the amount of maintenance and other personal
time they have invested in the facility. Lab
sharing for technology teachers can be a
source of frustration when needed supplies
and/or tools for a class have been used or
abused by someone other than the person who
ordered and maintained them. In addition,
many technology teachers have skills which
can be utilized in business and industry em-
ployment at salaries and benefits that are
frequently greater than they receive from
teaching.
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ) was used by Steinbach (1979) to measure
the level of job satisfaction for public sec-
ondary industrial arts teachers in Minnesota.
The evidence from Steinbach's study indicated
that certain job reinforcers of industrial
arts teachers were significantly associated
with their level of satisfaction. The
strongest associations were among the follow-
ing characteristics: steady employment, work-
ing conditions, position in the community,
feeling of accomplishment, supervisory compe-
tence, administrative support, judgmental
freedom, organizational practices, authority,
doing for others, and competitive pay.
Wright (1985) interviewed technology
teachers to determine if relationships ex-
isted between esteem, autonomy, job satisfac-
tion, and the intention to quit teaching.
Wright found that teachers' over-all job sat-
isfaction was positively correlated with the
PERCEIVED amount of esteem and negatively
correlated with the intention to quit teach-
ing. The study also indicated that teachers
in small schools have more esteem, but lower
salaries, than teachers in medium or large
schools. Building principals could have tre-
mendous impact on teachers' perceived esteem,
and therefore, their over-all satisfaction
AND their intention to remain in teaching.
A significant finding from Wright's
study was that neither actual salary nor the
teacher's satisfaction with their salary was
related to the intention to quit teaching.
Perceived esteem was the variable most highly
correlated with the intention to quit teach-
ing.
The research related to the variable
"esteem" (recognition, praise, status, high-
regard), based on Maslow's hierarchy, has
identified several distinct groups from which
teachers receive esteem (Johnson, 1967; Lacy,
1968; Sergiovanni, 1966; Simmons, 1970; and
Wright, 1985). These groups included stu-
dents, parents, the community, and school ad-
ministrators.
TECHNOLOGY TEACHER TURNOVER
There are several studies of technology
teachers who had left teaching (Dye, 1981;
Edmunds, 1982; Lindsey, 1979; and, Tomlinson,
1982). The results of these studies provide
a foundation from which to build.
Vocational industrial education teachers
in Texas who had quit teaching cited salary
as the primary reason (Lindsey, 1979). In
addition, three of the top ten reasons were
related to the teachers' relationship with
the school administration.
In another attempt to identify factors
involved in vocational industrial teachers'
decision to leave teaching, Dye (1981) iden-
tified several characteristics where mobile
teachers differed from stable teachers. Mo-
bile teachers were defined as those who had
left a teaching position while stable teach-
ers were defined as those who remained in
teaching. Low teaching salary was identified
as the most significant difference between
mobile and stable teachers. Mobile teachers
had a low opinion of teaching salaries,
whereas stable teachers had a relatively high
opinion of teaching salaries. Mobile teach-
ers were found to feel significantly less
support by the local school system than did
stable teachers. The issue again appears to
be one of individual perception.
Dye's (1981) and Wright's (1985) results
would suggest that teacher PERCEPTIONS of
conditions are perhaps more important than
"actual" conditions in affecting job satis-
faction and the intention to continue or dis-
continue teaching. This perception presents
a challenge to the building administrator:
how do they make technology, or any other,
teachers FEEL that they are supported. Re-
gardless of budget appropriations, the build-
ing administrator must convey the spirit of
program support to the teachers.
Technology teacher turnover and filling
technology vacancies have become significant
problems in many states. Technology teachers
in Illinois, for example, have had a turnover
rate as high as 14% per year. The technology
teacher vacancy situation has been further
compounded by the reduction in the number of
graduates that are certificated and elect to
teach technology. During the ten year period
from 1972-1982, the number of persons that
graduated with eligibility to teach technol-
ogy in Illinois declined by 50%. In addition
to the attrition from teaching by first and
second year technology teachers, significant
numbers of veteran teachers are approaching
retirement age. In 1980, 17.5% of all indus-
trial education teachers in Illinois were 50
years or above (Tomlinson, 1982).
Similarly, Devier and Wright (1987) as-
sessed the status of technology education in
Ohio and reported some rather alarming data.
In 1987, 25% of all practicing technology
teachers in Ohio were either retiring or eli-
gible to retire within the next five years
(1987-92). Perhaps even more alarming, 50%
of the technology teachers would be retiring
or eligible to retire within ten years!
(Devier and Wright, 1987).
In an effort to determine if the supply
of new technology teachers would be able to
keep pace with the demand to fill vacancies,
Devier and Wright (1988) surveyed teacher ed-
ucation institutions and secondary school
district superintendents in Ohio. The
projected supply of graduates certified to
teach technology, which is down approximately
50% from 1980, cannot meet the retirement
rate in the best case scenario. In the worst
case scenario, in which not all graduates de-
cide to teach, many teachers elect early re-
tirement, and the state mandates a proposed
technology education course in the middle
grades, the supply will be just one-fourth of
the demand! Although no one can accurately
predict demand, it would appear that the cur-
rent supply of technology majors in college
(1988-92) will fall short of the demand.
The effects of school climate are read-
ily apparent to the trained observer; yet,
school climate is incredibly complex and dif-
ficult to assess empirically. Recent studies
have clearly indicated the importance of the
principal's leadership style in determining
the school climate (Goodlad, 1984; Lipsitz,
1984; Sergiovanni & Starrett, 1983; and
Wright, 1985). One manifestation of the
school climate is the professional freedom
afforded to teachers to carry out their as-
signments in support of the school's mission.
The importance of achievement, recognition,
and organizational climate for teacher satis-
faction was documented by Johnson (1967),
Lacy (1968), Sergiovanni (1966), and Wright
(1985). These factors, then, may be influ-
enced by the principal. Lipsitz (1984),
Sergiovanni and Starrett (1983), Weller
(1982), and Wright (1985) concluded that the
administrator was one of the key factors in-
fluencing teacher morale and satisfaction.
TEACHER RETENTION SURVEY
SURVEY DESIGN
A research study was designed at the re-
quest of the ITEA Board of Directors to iden-
tify reasons teachers leave the profession as
well as possible solutions to this problem.
A questionnaire was developed which listed
twelve possible causes of the teacher re-
tention problem and ten possible solutions to
the problem. The factors were derived from
the literature review and input by profes-
sionals in the field. The respondents were
asked to rate these factors on a Likert-type,
five choice scale. A value of "1" referred
to either a low probable cause of the teacher
retention problem or a low possibility of be-
ing a partial solution to the problem, and a
value of "5" represented either a strong
probable cause of the teacher retention prob-
lem or a strong possibility of being a par-
tial solution to the problem.
RETURN
The questionnaires were mailed to technology
education state supervisors and presidents of
ITEA affiliated state associations as well as
selected corresponding officials from
Canadian Provinces and U.S. Territories.
This sample represents a "secondary source"
for research focused on teachers. It was de-
termined that this was the most expedient
method to collect the data given the opera-
tional parameters. The Advisory Committee
concurred with the researchers. The total
number mailed was 100, with a nearly equal
distribution between supervisors (51) and
presidents (49). The number of instruments
returned was 58, of which 56 were usable.
Twenty four surveys were returned by associ-
ation presidents (47%) and 32 were received
from supervisors (61%).
DISCUSSION OF THE SURVEY DATA
The data obtained from the survey are
reported in Tables 1 - 6. The possible
causes of the teacher retention problem are
presented first (Tables 1 - 3) followed by
the possible solutions (Tables 4 - 6). The
factors which were listed on the question-
naire are rank ordered by their mean ratings
in Tables 1 & 4. Tables 2 - 3 and 5 - 6 list
additional factors suggested by the two
groups of respondents.
The write-in responses provided by the
state supervisors and association presidents
for both possible causes and possible sol-
utions were content analyzed. Four themes
emerged from this analysis: Administrative,
Professional, Economic, and
Classroom/Student. Write-in responses were
usually fragmented, incomplete sentences.
Analysis was therefore subject to interpreta-
tion and thus used for discussion purposes
only.
The data in Table 1 on the possible
causes of the teacher retention problem indi-
cate that "lack of support by administration"
is most important (mean 4.12). This was the
only factor listed with a mean above 4.0.
The second and third rated causes were "low
salary/lack of benefits" and "budget re-
strictions." These two items both pertain to
economic factors. The second relates to the
teacher's personal life and the third relates
to the teacher's professional life. The
fourth rated factor, "lack of academic
freedom/choice of teaching assignments, etc."
may also be considered as an Administrative
factor. Thus, two of the top four rated fac-
tors are related to administration.
TABLE 1
POSSIBLE CAUSES OF THE TEACHER RETENTION
PROBLEM (N=56)
---------------------------------------------
Rank Cause Rating
---------------------------------------------
1 Lack of Support By Administration 4.12
2 Low Salary/Lack of Benefits 3.91
3 Budget Restrictions 3.88
4 Lack of Academic Freedom/Choice of
Teaching Assingments, Etc. 3.85
5 Student Apathy 3.52
6 Lack of Facilities/Equipment 3.43
7 Student Conduct 3.38
8 Lack of Opportunity for Promotion 3.23
9 Lack of Basic Job Satisfaction 3.10
10 Low Status In Community 2.89
11 Extra Duties i.e., Lunchroom Monitor,
etc. 2.86
12 Forced Participation In Extra Curricular
Assignments 2.74
---------------------------------------------
Table 2 lists additional causes of the
teacher retention problem as reported by
state supervisors of technology education.
The twenty-four (24) responses were categor-
ized according to the four themes estab-
lished. Professional Reasons included seven
(7) responses (29%), Economic Reasons seven
(7) responses (29%), Administrative Factors
six (6) responses (25%), and Student-
Classroom Factors totaled four (4) responses
(17%).
TABLE 2
ADDITIONAL CAUSES REPORTED BY THE SUPERVISORS
(N=24)
---------------------------------------------
Professional Reasons (7)
o Low status among colleagues outside tech-
nology education
o Lack of understanding of technology edu-
cation revolution
o Difficulty accomplishing necessary public
relations work
o Lack of involvement in shaping curric-
ulum, school policy
o Lack of opportunity for professional im-
provement
o In-service activities not within reason-
able distance
o Lack of financial support for continuing
education
Economic Reasons (7)
o Greater opportunities in industry
o Teachers leave when jobs in industry are
available
o Stayed in teaching long enough to obtain
benefits prior to beginning second career
o Attractive retirement offers
o Lack of summer jobs available
o State economy
Administrative / Teaching Schedules / RIFs
(6)
o Administrative paperwork
o 4 - 5 daily preparations at high school
level
o Class scheduling (decreases student
options)
o Program reductions - lack of support
o Curriculum not required at junior high,
therefore students are not enrolling at
high school
Classroom / Students (4)
o Lack of support for discipline
o Large class sizes
o Working only with low ability students
o Teacher burnout
---------------------------------------------
Table 3 lists additional causes of the
teacher retention problem suggested by the
ITEA affiliated association presidents. The
nineteen (19) responses were categorized as
follows: Professional Reasons - 8 (42%), Ad-
ministrative Reasons - 7 (37%), and Economic
Reasons - 3 (16%). By comparison, 29% of the
supervisors' responses were related to Eco-
nomic Factors. Both groups reported the
largest number of responses related to Pro-
fessional Reasons.
TABLE 3
ADDITIONAL CAUSES REPORTED BY ASSOCIATION
PRESIDENTS (N=19)
---------------------------------------------
Professional Reasons (8)
o Low status on faculty
o No real-life experiences to relate class-
room instruction to
o In-service support not available for new
technologies
o Lack of teacher's rights
o Too much responsibility placed on
teachers: checks for physical, sexual,
and drug abuse; morality; etc
o State organization weak, no real support
for teachers
o Stress: health effects
o Pressure to make changes
Administrative Reasons (7)
o Low support from faculty and guidance
personnel
o Higher graduation standards, little time
for electives
o Declining enrollments
o Dropped from minimum standards
o Teachers forced out due to cut-backs
caused by other course requirements
o Legislative requirements
o Transferred to T & I program
Economic Reasons (3)
o Other opportunities arise
o Retirements
o Graduates do not have adequate prepara-
tion for jobs
Classroom / Students (1)
o Students get off too easy
---------------------------------------------
Table 4 lists the mean ratings of the
possible solutions to the teacher retention
problem identified on the survey. "Increased
funding for education" and "stronger parental
support for education" were tied for first
with a mean rating of 4.4. The respondents
also felt strongly that school administration
should shift their focus from external issues
to internal issues (mean 4.18).
TABLE 4
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE TEACHER RETENTION
PROBLEM (N=56)
---------------------------------------------
Rank Solution Rating
---------------------------------------------
1 Increased federal, state, and local
financial support of education. 4.40
1 Stronger parental support for the 4.40
educational process.
3 Refocusing of attention on the part 4.18
school administration from external
issues to internal issues
internal issues - teacher support.
4 20% increase in all teachers
salaries 3.84
5 Use of paraprofessionals for extra
duties i.e., lunchroom monitors,
etc. 3.68
5 National campaign to reform public
opinion of teaching. 3.68
7 Less attention to retaining all
students in school at all costs and
more attention to working with
students who want to learn. 3.60
8 Relocation of authority in
selection of course content,
instruction, etc. to allow for all
teachers to participate in choices. 3.50
9 Creation of broad-based teacher
recognition at all levels i.e.
teacher of month etc. 3.47
10 Development of Master Teacher
Hierarchy to create a promotion
ladder. 3.29
---------------------------------------------
Table 5 lists additional solutions to
the teacher retention problem suggested by
the responding supervisors. The twelve (12)
responses were categorized as follows: Admin-
istrative Practices - 5 (42%), Professional
Activities - 4 (33%), Economic Factors - 2
(17%), and Classroom Issues - 1 (8%).
TABLE 5
ADDITIONAL SOLUTIONS REPORTED BY SUPERVISORS
(N=12)
---------------------------------------------
Administrative Practices (5)
o Re-establish administrative links with
the teaching process
o Publish standards for school board member
participation and responsibility
o Vocational education is not just a fed-
eral program - support at the local level
o Reduce class sizes to 22:1 (18:1 with
mainstreamed special needs students)
o Working relationship of counselors with
ALL students and teachers, not just col-
lege bound or "academic"
Professional Activities (4)
o More participation and support for
subject/specialty organizations (ITEA)
instead of generic groups (NEA)
o Paid sabbaticals for education, self-
improvement, study, and re-certification
o Promotional efforts for technology educa-
tion
o Professional staff development: financial
and administrative support for out-of-
state travel to national conferences,
workshops, and seminars; allow teachers
to participate in industry-sponsored
workshops
Economic Factors (2)
o Benefits package equal to private sector
o Same increase in salary as congress
Classroom / Students (1)
o Use paraprofessionals to assist technol-
ogy teachers in providing tutorial ser-
vices, etc. for special education
students who are mainstreamed into regu-
lar classroom
---------------------------------------------
Table 6 lists additional solutions sug-
gested by the association presidents. The
sixteen (16) responses were categorized as
follows: Administrative Practices - 9 (56%),
Professional Activities - 6 (38%), and Eco-
nomic Factors - 1 (6%).
TABLE 6
ADDITIONAL SOLUTIONS REPORTED BY ASSOCIATION
PRESIDENTS (N=16)
---------------------------------------------
Administrative Practices (9)
o View technology education as vital as the
core program
o Program support from the central adminis-
tration
o Support leave time for professional
events, conferences
o State support for student organizations
o Require the subject of technology educa-
tion
o Teachers need to have more of an actual
hand in decision-making
o Involve local business
o In-service support/availability for new
technologies
o Include technology education in the mini-
mum standards
Professional Activities (6)
o Annual teacher recognition
o Increased teacher enrichment program
o Increased involvement with math, science
curriculum
o Provision of adequate graduate courses
o National campaign to increase awareness
of technology education
Economic Factors (1)
o Limit income potential of private sector
careers so they aren't so darn tempting
---------------------------------------------
A review of Tables 2, 3, 5, and 6 would
indicate that, although there is general
agreement between the state supervisors and
the association presidents, the presidents
tended to indicate a higher need for in-
creased professionalism which may be enhanced
by administrative practices. Similarly, the
presidents tended to place less emphasis on
the economic factors than did the supervi-
sors.
The data from this survey support the
literature previously cited. The causes of
the teacher retention problem reported in
this study are very similar to those identi-
fied in the literature. Similarly, the pos-
sible solutions suggested by the respondents
in this survey closely parallel those sol-
utions listed in the literature.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is difficult to make broad gener-
alizations from this study alone. However,
there are several common themes between
studies reported in the literature and this
study. It must also be recognized that there
are variables over which there is no control.
Similarly, there are factors which may be too
expensive to address realistically.
CONCLUSIONS
1. A primary reason that technology teachers
leave the profession is "lack of support
by administration." This was documented
in numerous studies cited in the litera-
ture review and by this study.
2. Salaries were consistently identified as
a source of dissatisfaction. However, re-
search has also indicated that perhaps
the teachers' PERCEPTION of their salary
compared to other professionals or groups
may be more significant than actual sal-
ary. Regardless, salaries have been
identified as a source of dissatisfac-
tion, but not statistically related to
the intention to quit teaching.
3. Other possible causes of teachers leaving
the profession included budget re-
strictions, lack of control over teaching
assignments, student apathy, and lack of
equipment and facilities.
4. This study identified two main areas of
concern that may be possible solutions to
the teacher retention problem: adminis-
trative practice and professional activ-
ities. Frequently, these two are very
closely related.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are specific recommen-
dations that may have a significant effect on
teacher satisfaction and retention:
1. A representative from ITEA should meet
with each state's secondary school prin-
cipal's organization (NASSP) to present
the findings of this study.
2. Develop and disseminate a series of
monographs (or idea books) that are spe-
cifically targeted to teachers with lim-
ited facilities and budgets.
3. The ITEA should continue to support leg-
islation to increase minimum salary lev-
els for teachers. Salaries should be
PERCEIVED as on a par with comparable
professionals.
4. The author recommends that ITEA endorse a
study to determine if the supply of new
technology teachers is going to be ade-
quate to replace those teachers leaving
the field. Also, are new technology pro-
grams being planned for the middle
grades, and if so, how many additional
teachers will be needed.
----------------
Michael D. Wright is Associate Professor and
Chair, Department of Technology Education,
Mankato State University, Mankato, MN. The
author is indebted to Dr. David Devier, Ohio
Northern University, for chairing the ITEA
Task Force E, conducting the survey, and
keeping the Task Force moving forward at a
timely rate. The committee's full report is
available from the ITEA Publications Depart-
ment.
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(1959). THE MOTIVATION TO WORK (2nd ed.).
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Lacy, A. (1968). An analysis of factors
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Journal of Technology Education Volume 3, Number 1 Fall 1991