JVER v28n3 - Perceptions of Traditionally and Alternatively Certified Career and Technical Education Teachers

Volume 28, Number 3
2003


Perceptions of Traditionally and Alternatively Certified Career and Technical Education Teachers

Sheila K. Ruhland
University of Minnesota

Christine D. Bremer
University of Minnesota

Abstract

This study describes traditionally and alternatively certified secondary career and technical education (CTE) teachers' perceptions of their first year teaching experience. On a national level, there is an increase in the number of states providing alternative certification as an option to enter the teaching profession. Critics have argued that alternatively certified teachers are inferior to traditionally certified teachers. Results from this study reported secondary CTE teachers who completed a traditional certification program had better pre-service preparation in pedagogy. In contrast, alternatively certified teachers felt more prepared in knowledge of subject matter. The reported likelihood of remaining in the teaching profession did not vary based upon type of teacher certification program. Policymakers, state departments of education, and schools and colleges of education providing teacher preparation programs must help assure that teachers who are alternatively certified will be prepared to enter the teaching profession .

Purpose

Many alternative certification procedures for secondary academic and CTE teachers exist ( Ruhland & Bremer, 2002 ). However, few studies report how CTE teachers' preparation and teaching experiences vary. The primary purpose of this study was to report differences, if any, in recently certified CTE teachers' experience based upon the type of teacher certification program completed. The two types of teacher certification programs reported for the purpose of this study were traditional and alternative. Traditional certification programs were identified as the completion of a baccalaureate degree in education or fifth-year or post-baccalaureate program. These programs, while classified as alternative by Feistritzer and Chester (2000) , share many characteristics with traditional teacher certification programs. Alternative certification refers to non-traditional routes to enter the teaching profession. These routes include, but are not limited to occupational competency, professional experience, and completion of a baccalaureate degree in the subject area.

Often the terms licensure and certification are used interchangeably. Many use the term licensure only to refer to the process of obtaining an initial teaching credential. The license is the document or "permit" used to identify the teaching credential. In effect, one must be certified (by documenting successful completion of the requirements and processes) to obtain a license (permit to teach). In this study, however, the term certification is used broadly to refer to the entire range of policies, procedures, and practices employed to award credentials--a license--to teach in public schools. Each state has rules of certification prescribed by that state's governing board of education. The research questions for this study were:

  1. Are there differences in ratings of pre-service preparation based upon type of certification program completed?
  2. Are there differences in ratings of factors important to continue or not continue teaching based upon type of certification program completed?
  3. Are there differences in ratings of support services used based upon type of certification program completed?
  4. Are there differences in the likelihood to continue in the teaching profession based upon type of certification program completed?

Literature Review

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLBA) has caused state and district officials to focus on teacher quality in order to meet the requirements of the act for teachers to be highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 school year ( United States General Accounting Office, 2003 ). To comply with NCLBA teachers must have state certification. As a result, state officials are reviewing laws regulating teacher education programs, licensure, initial certification, and re-certification of teachers.

Concerns about teacher preparation and qualifications have gained greater visibility due to the growing interest in education reform during a time of teacher shortages. Driving these changes is a growing sense that the traditional methods of preparing teachers, developed during the first half of the twentieth century, have not worked as well as they should have ( Fraser, 2001 ). In the United States, state departments of education have established standard paths by which prospective teachers may obtain the credentials necessary to teach in public schools. However, there is no national agreement concerning the requirements for teaching; policies vary considerably from state to state. According to Goldhaber and Brewer (2001) "there is no single licensure system but instead fifty different systems. The rules that govern the alternative pathways into teaching also vary considerably" (p. 84).

Issues and Challenges to Alternative Teacher Certification

Alternative certification refers to non-traditional routes to enter the teaching profession ( Ruhland & Bremer, 2002 ). Alternatively certified individuals often have not completed an undergraduate degree in the field of education. Alternative certification encompasses a wide range of practices, ranging from emergency certification given to those with no teaching background or training, to programs designed to license or certify individuals who have an undergraduate degree in the field in which they plan to teach ( Feistritzer & Chester, 2001 ).

Nationwide, Feistritzer and Chester (2000 , 2001 ) have identified 10 classes of alternative teacher certification routes. Nine of the classes represent categories of alternative certification available to individuals entering the teaching profession for the first time; the remaining category is used for states having no alternative certification routes. Following are the 10 classes of alternative certification routes identified by Feistritzer and Chester (2001) :

  1. Class A is a program designed for the explicit purpose of attracting talented individuals who already have at least a bachelor's degree in a field other than education into elementary or secondary school teaching. The program is not restricted to shortages, secondary grade levels or subject areas. Alternative teacher certification programs in these states involve teaching with a trained mentor, and formal instruction that deals with the theory and practice of teaching during the school year-and sometimes the summer before and/or after.
  2. Class B is a teacher certification route that has been designed specifically to bring talented individuals into teaching who have at least a bachelor's degree in teaching. These programs involve specially designed mentoring and formal instruction. However, these states either restrict the program to shortages and/or secondary grade levels and/or subject areas.
  3. Class C entails a review of academic and professional background, transcript analysis. They involve specially (individually) designed inservice and course-taking necessary to reach competencies required for certification, if applicable. The state and/or local school district have major responsibility for program design.
  4. Class D entails a review of academic and professional background, transcript analysis. They involve specially (individually) designed inservice and course-taking necessary to reach competencies required for certification, if applicable. An institution of higher education has major responsibility for program design.
  5. Class E is post-baccalaureate programs based at an institution of higher education.
  6. Class F is basically an emergency route. The prospective teacher is issued some type of emergency certificate or waiver, which allows the individual to teach, usually without any on-site support or supervision, while taking the traditional teacher education courses requisite for full certification.
  7. Class G are programs for persons who have few requirements left to fulfill before becoming certified through the traditional approved college teacher education program route, e.g., persons certified in one state moving to another; persons certified in one endorsement area seeking to become certified in another.
  8. Cass H is a route that enables a person who has some "special" qualifications, such as a well-known author or Nobel Prize winner, to teach certain subjects.
  9. Class I provides no alternatives to the approved college teacher education program route for licensing teachers.
  10. Class J is designed to eliminate emergency routes. They prepare individuals who don't meet basic requirements to become qualified to enter an alternate or traditional route leading to teacher licensing. (p. 37)

While some critics argue that alternatively certified teachers are inferior to traditionally prepared teachers, Kwiatkowski (1999) maintained that alternative certification strategies will attract more competent and diverse candidates, individuals interested in and committed to teaching in urban schools, and decreasing need for emergency credentialing. Darling-Hammond, Chung, and Frelow (2002) however found reasons to criticize the use of alternative certification routes. They analyzed 1998 data from a survey of beginning teachers in New York City according to individual teacher education program and by pathway to teaching. Darling- Hammond et al. reported that teachers who completed traditional teacher preparation programs reported feeling better prepared to teach than those who completed alternative programs. While there was substantial variation across programs and pathways, it was found that teachers' sense of being well prepared was correlated with their sense of teaching efficacy, feeling responsible for student learning, and planning to stay in the teaching profession.

Shen (1997) , while agreeing that alternative certification can help diversify the teaching workforce and alleviate shortages, also had concerns about the value of alternative certification. In a study based on the 1993-1994 Schools and Staffing Survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics, Shen reported that: (a) alternatively certified teachers appeared to have lower academic qualifications than traditionally certified teachers; (b) relatively few individuals were recruited from other fields through alternative certification, while new college graduates took advantage of alternative programs to avoid the rigors of traditional ones; and (c) a lower percentage of alternatively certified teachers reported expecting that teaching would be their lifelong career, raising concerns about retention. Further, in Shen's view, the larger proportion of alternatively certified teachers employed in inner city schools raised questions about quality of teaching and educational equity for lowincome students.

Laczko-Kerr and Berliner (2002) also came to the conclusion that traditional certification was superior to alternative certification. They compared the academic achievement of elementary students taught by teachers from the national Teach for America program with students taught by teachers who had attended regular teacher certification programs at accredited universities and met all state requirements. They found that students of regularly-certified teachers performed significantly better in reading, mathematics, and language arts, while students of what they termed undercertified teachers made about 20% less academic growth per year when compared to students of regularly certified teachers. These authors believe that teachers from Teach for America and similar non-traditional certification programs contribute to the gap in achievement between poor children and children who are more advantaged.

Certification Procedures in Career and Technical Education

Career and technical education (CTE) has not escaped the issues and challenges confronting teacher certification. Traditionally, teachers in trade and industrial (T&I) and health occupations have been alternatively certified on the basis of their occupational competence, while the majority of CTE teachers (e.g., agriculture, family and consumer sciences, business, marketing, and technology education) enter the teaching profession via the traditional four-year baccalaureate degree ( Walter & Gray, 2002 ). In 1994, more than 45% of secondary trade and industrial education teachers did not have bachelor's degrees ( Lynch, 1996 ). Lynch reported "virtually every state permits an alternative certification or credentialing program for some teachers in vocational and technical education. The primary alternative is to substitute years of occupational experience for higher levels of formal education" (p. 23). The impact of this common practice on teacher preparedness and quality of teachers is unknown.

Ruhland and Bremer (2002) reported multiple alternative certification routes available for secondary academic and CTE teachers. The alternative certification routes available for CTE teachers were similar to those for academic teachers. The most frequently identified alternative certification route varied by CTE area. In agriculture, marketing, and technology, the most common certification route was one designed for individuals who currently have a bachelor's degree. In business, computer science, health careers, and marketing, the most common certification route was one that reviewed an individual's academic and professional background and transcripts, with certification approval the responsibility of the state and/or local school district. For family and consumer sciences, health careers, and trade and industrial, the most common certification route was one that provided individuals with an emergency certificate or waiver to teach.

Teacher Attrition and Retention

Understanding the factors underlying teacher attrition and retention will help assure quality of teaching in our educational systems. Marlow, Inman, and Betancourt-Smith (1997) researched the impact of support systems on improving retention among teachers with having characteristics that predict attrition. They concluded that beginning teachers need opportunities to interact with "(a) colleagues who have similar ideas about teaching and working cooperatively, (b) administrators who encourage and promote teachers' ideas, and (c) a community that feels positively about the educational system and the people in it" (p. 213). They recommended additional support for teachers to include "a combined effort of administration, teachers, and people within the community" (p. 213).

Kirby and LeBude (1998) conducted research to identify retention strategies for beginning vocational teachers in health, agriculture, and biotechnology. The authors suggested two retention strategies for the first five years of a new teacher's career. The first strategy was to assign a support team, rather than a single teacher, to a new teacher. The support team would include a mentor teacher and/or subjectarea peer teacher, administrator, state staff, and teacher educator. The second strategy was to provide assistance to new teachers, such as adequate resource materials, facilities to support curriculum, continuing education reimbursement, and positive work climate.

Employing a mentoring program can reduce early attrition of beginning teachers ( Odell & Ferraro, 1992 ). For the purpose of this study, mentoring is defined as an "intense caring relationship in which persons with more experience work with less experienced persons to promote both professional and personal development" ( Caffarella, 1992 , p. 38). Mentors can assist with classroom management issues, locate resources, and provide advice to new teachers. Mentoring programs can be costly, but the money saved on recruiting and rehiring teachers yearly has shown the financial effectiveness of mentoring programs. "Teachers who were still teaching after four years most valued the emotional support that they received from their mentors in their first year of teaching" ( Odell & Ferraro, 1992 , p. 203).

Overall, research has indicated that adequate pre-service preparation and inservice support of novice teachers are important to improving both teaching quality and retention. Alternative certification programs vary widely in the amount of preservice preparation provided; individuals with little pre-service preparation and no opportunity to engage in a supervised teaching experience may need higher levels of in-service support in order to be successful. Concerning retention, research indicates that teachers, regardless of teacher certification program, depart their jobs for a variety of reasons. In a study conducted by Ingersoll (1999) teachers reported they departed because they were dissatisfied with their jobs or to seek better career opportunities.

For many teachers, the effort invested in gaining certification can be presumed to be a measure of interest in remaining in the field. Since many career and technical education teachers have had another career and bypass a great deal of the typical teacher preparation process, they may feel less committed to the teaching profession.

Methodology

This study was exploratory research with data collected using survey methods. The Mann-Whitney U-test (two-tailed) for ordinal and two sample comparisons (traditionally and alternatively certified teachers) was used to test for statistical significance when notable differences were found in the descriptive statistics for the two groups. The p -value for statistical significance was set at p ≤ .05 for all statistical analysis. Further, note that while the subsequent tables may show percentages, all U-test analyses were performed on raw response data.

Participants

State department of education personnel were contacted by telephone and/or email between February and May 2001 to determine if their state would be able to identify a list of CTE teachers with names and addresses hired between 1996 and 2000. In eight states, state department of education personnel were not able to identify a list of CTE teachers, but provided information that enabled the researchers to obtain names and addresses from local school districts or teacher education programs.

A total of 28 states (55%) were able to provide the names and addresses, or provide access to, traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers hired between 1996 and 2000 (Table 1). Seven states agreed to mail the letters and surveys directly to the teachers on behalf of the researchers since those states were unable to release teachers' names and addresses due to state privacy issues. Nineteen states (37%) were not able to obtain and/or provide a list of teachers' names and addresses within the timeframe requested. Four states failed to respond to the request for information. While the non-participation of some states probably reduces the study's generalizability, the researchers had no control over which to include or exclude in the study. All available participants were included.

The sample for the study consisted of the names provided by the 28 states (Table 1). Each state was asked to provide a random sample of 90 CTE teachers hired between 1996 and 2000. Eight states identified fewer than 90 CTE teachers hired between 1996 and 2000. For these eight states, the entire population was included in the sample. This process yielded names of 2,091 CTE teachers. Not all states were able to provide a list of traditionally or alternatively certified CTE teachers hired between 1996 and 2000. Therefore, results from this study cannot be generalized on a national level.

Table 1
Summary of State Participation and Number of Surveys Sent and Received
State a Surveys Sent b Surveys Received c
Alabama 90 18
Alaska 90 15
California 90 31
Connecticut 89 d 22
Delaware 15 0
Florida 90 27
Idaho 70 13
Illinois 90 23
Iowa 90 30
Kansas 50 15
Kentucky 40 17
Maryland 90 34
Michigan 90 29
Minnesota 90 26
Mississippi 90 14
Missouri 90 21
Nebraska 90 35
New Jersey 90 26
North Dakota 90 46
Oklahoma 90 37
Rhode Island 8 4
South Dakota 24 12
Texas 90 18
Virginia 65 27
Washington 90 38
West Virginia 20 2
Wisconsin 90 24
Wyoming 90 28

a N = 28; b N = 2,091 c N = 632; d Received 90 names, of which one name was a duplicate.

Design and Procedures

A two-page survey was designed based upon a review of state department of education certification documents and a survey previously developed by Ruhland (2001) . The survey was designed to collect data from CTE teachers regarding demographics, CTE certification area(s), type of teacher certification program, status of teacher certification requirements, pre-service preparation, support services and likelihood to remain in the teaching profession.

To establish content validity of the survey instrument, a panel of six experts was invited in March 2001 to review questions and determine if the survey instrument represented the content of the research questions. Each expert was either traditionally or alternatively certified, and familiar with the educational preparation of CTE teachers and the skills and abilities taught in teacher preparation programs. These experts were asked to make recommendations for improving, adding, or deleting survey items to assure each survey question was measuring the question intended. After the panel established content validity a pilot-test was conducted with 12 traditionally or alternatively certified CTE teachers in March 2001. Comments were obtained from six panel experts, and improvements made to the survey. Most changes focused on the re-wording of questions to increase clarity. CTE teachers were sent the survey in April and May 2001 with a follow-up postcard sent to each participant two weeks after the initial mailing.

From the 632 (30%) completed surveys received by the end of June 2001 (Table 1), 608 (29%) were usable. Seventy-one respondents identified they were not certified in a CTE area; therefore these respondents were not included in the data analysis. Of the 608 useable surveys, respondents reported certification in at least one of the eight CTE areas (e.g., agriculture, business, computer science, family and consumer science, health, marketing, technology, and trade and industrial).

Results

Of the 608 (29%) CTE respondents, 405 (67%) participated in a traditional teacher certification program (i.e. baccalaureate degree in education that leads to certification or fifth-year or post-baccalaureate program that leads to certification) and 203 (33%) respondents participated in an alternative teacher certification program (i.e. non-traditional, occupational experience, certificate program). Survey results indicated 59% of the traditionally certified teachers were 40 years of age or younger, and 35% of the alternatively certified teachers were 40 years of age or younger. At the time the respondents began teaching, 79% of the traditionally certified teachers had completed all the requirements for teacher certification, and 23% of the alternatively certified teachers had completed all the requirements for teacher certification. Sixty-four percent of the traditionally and 64% of the alternatively certified teachers rated their teaching experience thus far as very positive.

Research question one asked, "Are there differences in ratings of pre-service preparation based upon type of certification program completed?" To answer this question, respondents were divided and compared based upon type of teacher certification program (traditional or alternative certification). CTE respondents rated the adequacy of pre-service training in four areas as experienced during their first six months of teaching (Table 2). Significant differences were found in the pre-service preparation areas of pedagogy ( p = .0001) and knowledge of subject matter ( p = .0005) based upon type of certification program. No significant differences were found in ratings of pre-service preparation areas of classroom management skills and strategies for working with special populations.

Table 2
Career and Technical Education Teachers' Pre-service Preparation.

Not
Adequate 		Somewhat
Adequate 		Moderately
Adequate 		Very
Adequate

a T b A T A T A T A
Pre-service preparation % % % % % % % %
Pedagogy or teaching
methods*
8
16
18
31
47
34
25
16
Knowledge of subject
matter*
2
2
4
5
35
19
56
72
Classroom management
skills
10
11
31
32
39
37
19
19
Strategies for working with
special populations
16
21
39
41
34
23
10
14

Note . Percentage may not total 100% due to rounding. N = 608. Group comparison between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers based upon total question responses. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the responses of traditionally and alternatively certified teachers.
a T = Traditional certification program. b A = Alternative certification program. * p < .05

The second research question was, "Are there differences in ratings of factors important to continue or not continue teaching based upon type of certification program completed?" To answer this question respondents were divided and compared based upon type of teacher certification program (traditional or alternative certification). Respondents were asked to rate a list of 15 factors as to overall importance in the decision to continue or not continue in the teaching profession (Table 3).

Table 3
Career and Technical Education Teachers' Rating of Factors Important to Continue or Not Continue Teaching.

Not
Important 		Somewhat
Important 		Moderately
Important 		Very
Important
a T b A T A T A T A
Retention factors % % % % % % % %
Positive teaching experience 1 1 5 6 28 27 64 64
Professional development
opportunities
8
7
23
26
42
40
25
26
Business and community
internship opportunities
32
30
34
29
22
26
9
13
Sense of accomplishment* 0 0 5 4 27 18 66 76
Availability of mentoring
program*
32
28
31
24
24
29
11
17
Availability of support
services for new teachers
21
20
33
29
25
24
19
23
Recognition and support
from supervisor*
6
6
18
11
40
37
34
42
Recognition and support
from peers
5
6
18
21
46
41
28
31
Positive interactions with
students
0
0
3
2
25
27
69
70
Approval of family and/or
friends
14
12
21
25
38
36
26
26
Pleasant working conditions 0 2 8 9 39 39 52 49
Quality and quantity of
resources
4
6
15
13
42
41
36
37
Leadership opportunities 8 11 27 28 42 39 21 21
Perception of job security 6 6 14 16 37 34 41 40
Potential for salary increases 5 6 13 16 35 33 45 41

Note . Percentage may not total 100% due to rounding. ( N = 608). Group comparison between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers based upon total question responses. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the responses of traditionally and alternatively certified teachers.
a T = Traditional certification program. b A = Alternative certification program. * p < .05

Six (40%) of the 15 factors received the greatest number of responses as being very important for traditionally and alternatively certified teachers to continue in the teaching profession: (a) positive teaching experience, (b) sense of accomplishment, (c) positive interaction with students, (d) pleasant working conditions, (e) perception of job security, and (f) potential for salary increases. Of the six factors, positive teaching experience, sense of accomplishment, and positive interaction with students were rated by over 50% of the respondents as very important in determining their intention to continue or not continue teaching. Availability of a mentoring program was rated as not important by 32% of the traditionally certified teachers and not important by 28% of the alternatively certified teachers. Significant differences were reported in ratings of three factors to continue or not continue teaching: (a) sense of accomplishment ( p = .0156), (b) availability of a mentoring program ( p = .0245), and (c) recognition and support from supervisor ( p = .0360).

Research question three asked, "Are there differences in ratings of support services used based upon type of certification program completed?" To answer this question, respondents were divided and compared based upon type of teacher certification program (traditional or alternative certification). Respondents were asked to identify the availability and use of eight support services prior to or during their first six months of teaching (Table 4). Most frequently reported support services available and used to some degree were a teacher handbook and orientation to policies and procedures within the school district. Paid curriculum development, on-site certification courses, and tuition assistance were reported by over 50% of the traditionally and alternatively certified teachers as not available. Alternatively certified teachers reported as available and used to a significant degree a mentor (30%) and curriculum and instructional resources (39%), whereas traditionally certified teachers reported available and used to a significant degree a mentor (21%) and curriculum and instructional resources (32%). Significant differences were reported in ratings of two support services: (a) on-site certification courses ( p = .0398), and (b) tuition assistance for certification courses ( p = .0001).

Table 4
Career and Technical Education Teachers' Support Services Used During First Six Months of Teaching.





Not
Available
Available
Did Not
Use 		Available
Used
Some
Degree 		Available
Used
Significant
Degree
a T b A T A T A T A
Support services used % % % % % % % %
Teacher handbook 16 20 20 16 43 38 18 23
Curriculum and instructional
resources
11
15
11
14
43
29
32
39
Mentor 32 26 14 17 29 26 21 30
Peer support group 40 32 15 20 29 26 13 19
Orientation to policies and
procedures within the
school district

16

15

20

24

44

39

17

19
Paid curriculum
development time prior
to teaching

70

67

8

9

11

11

6

8
On-site certification courses* 74 67 10 13 7 10 4 6
Tuition assistance for
certification
courses*

72

56

8

10

8

10

7

20

Note . Percentage may not total 100% due to rounding. N = 608. Group comparison between traditionally and alternatively certified teachers based upon total question responses. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the responses of traditionally and alternatively certified teachers.
a T = Traditional certification program. b A = Alternative certification program. * p < .05

The fourth research question was, "Are there differences in the likelihood to continue in the teaching profession based upon type of certification program completed?" To answer this question, respondents were divided and compared based upon type of teacher certification program (traditional or alternative certification) (Table 5). Over 50% of the respondents, regardless of type of teacher certification program indicated they plan to continue teaching for eight or more years. Only 10% of the traditionally certified teachers and 5% of the alternatively certified teachers reported they were actively considering a non-teaching job or otherwise planning to leave the teaching profession. There were no differences reported in likelihood to continue in the teaching profession.

Table 5
Career and Technical Education Teachers' Comparison of Teaching Certification Program and Intentions to Continue or Leave the Teaching Profession
Traditional Alternative
Teaching intentions % %
Plan to continue (8 or more years) 51 56
Probably continue teaching (3 to 7 years) 30 29
Actively considering non-teaching job 7 3
Retiring 3 4

Note . Percentage may not total 100% due to rounding. N = 608.

Conclusions

Several findings emerged from this study regarding CTE teachers' perceptions of their first year teaching experience based upon type of teacher certification program. The present study asked CTE teachers, at the time they began teaching, if their requirements for teacher certification had been completed. Of the CTE respondents, 79% of the traditionally certified teachers had completed all the requirements when they began teaching, and 23% of the alternatively certified teachers had completed all the requirements when they began teaching. These results are consistent with previous research ( Lynch, 1996 ), which reported many CTE teachers are not fully certified when they begin teaching.

CTE teachers completing a traditional certification program (baccalaureate degree in education; or fifth-year or post-baccalaureate program) versus an alternative certification program reported differences in the pre-service preparation areas of pedagogy and knowledge of subject matter. This concurs with the findings of Darling-Hammond et al. (2002) . A contrasting finding is that in pedagogy, traditionally certified teachers reported being more prepared than alternatively certified teachers. In contrast, in knowledge of subject matter, alternatively certified teachers felt more prepared than traditionally certified teachers.

Regardless of certification program completed teachers in this study reported a need for additional ongoing support in two key areas: classroom management and working with special needs students. Accepted classroom management practices vary from school to school, but teachers can be better prepared for the challenge of classroom management by having a thorough knowledge of the many factors that affect student behavior, such as the arrangement of the classroom, establishment of class rules, choice of instructional activities, managing conflict and compromise, and improving students' social skills. New teachers also need a thorough understanding of how to work with students with disabilities. In addition to more pre-service preparation in these areas, teachers should have ongoing professional development opportunities available to them and should be encouraged to develop collaborative relationships with special education teachers.

Teachers completing a traditional or alternative certification program responded similarly concerning factors important to them in deciding whether to continue or not continue in the teaching profession. In both groups, respondents did not highly rate the importance of a mentoring program. Thirty-two percent of the traditionally certified teachers rated a mentor program as not important, as did 28% of the alternatively certified teachers. This finding stands in contrast to the conclusions reached by Kirby and LeBude (1998) and Odell and Ferraro (1992) , who emphasized, based on their research findings, the retention-enhancing value of providing a mentor teacher during the first years of a new teacher's career. The present study did not probe the reasons for respondents' lack of enthusiasm for mentors, but it may be that those responding "not important" found a previous mentoring experience not helpful, or, because they had prior non-CTE teaching experience, may have viewed a mentor as not important or not critical to remaining in the profession. It is also possible that those who had a good relationship with their mentor found the relationship more helpful than did those who did not have a good relationship with their mentor.

Positive teaching experience, sense of accomplishment, and positive interaction with students were rated as very important by both traditionally and alternatively certified teachers in deciding whether to continue in the teaching profession. However, differences were found between alternatively and traditionally certified teachers on three factors important to deciding to continue in the teaching profession. The three factors were sense of accomplishment, availability of a mentoring program, and recognition and support from supervisor. These differences may be due to a lack of self-confidence on the part of alternatively certified teachers as they enter the teaching profession. These findings may be an indication that these teachers will need additional support in order to remain in the teaching profession. Providing such support may increase the likelihood of both traditional and alternatively certified teachers continuing teaching as a lifelong career ( Shen, 1997 ; Ingersoll, 1999 ).

Teachers who reported a more positive rating of their teaching experience also reported a greater likelihood of staying in the teaching profession. An equal percentage (64%) of traditionally certified teachers and alternatively certified teachers rated their teaching experience as very positive or extremely positive. The reported likelihood of remaining in the teaching profession did not vary based upon type of teacher certification program. Whether a CTE teacher participated in a baccalaureate degree in education, fifth-year or post-baccalaureate program, or alternative certification program, 51% of the traditionally certified teachers and 56% of the alternatively certified teachers reported they plan to continue teaching eight or more years.

The finding that traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers felt equally likely to remain in the profession suggests concerns about the long-term commitment of alternatively certified CTE teachers may not be well-founded. At the same time, these findings do not support Kwiatkowski's (1999) contention that alternatively certified teachers were more committed to teaching in challenging settings. An emphasis on adequate preparation so the first year of teaching is a positive experience should help improve retention of all teachers, whatever their certification route.

Summary and Implications for Further Research

Policymakers, state departments of education, and schools and colleges of education providing teacher preparation programs must help assure that teachers who are alternatively certified will be prepared to enter the teaching profession. Findings from this study indicate a need for more collaborative efforts among those preparing teachers and those hiring them. These findings will assist those responsible for state certification policy in reviewing existing procedures and modifying pre-service and in-service programs. It is anticipated that state departments of education will continue to confront new challenges as the availability of alternative certification routes increases.

This study has yielded information that may benefit state departments of education as they focus on teacher quality in response to the NCLBA. Federal criteria for a highly qualified public elementary school or secondary school teacher requires that each teacher has "obtained full state certification as a teacher (including alternative certification) … and has not had certification or licensure requirements waived or emergency, temporary, or provisional basis" ( United States General Accounting Office, 2003 , p. 7). In this study, 67% of the respondents reported participating in a traditional teacher certification program. However, at the time these respondents began teaching, 21% had not completed all the requirements for full state certification.

This study further indicates the challenge states have with their teacher certification data systems. In this study, only 28 states were able to provide a list of CTE teachers hired between 1996 and 2000. Data collection practices need to be improved at the state level so as to accurately identify those teachers who have obtained full state certification. States will need to develop up-to-date data systems to track teacher certification.

The role and value of a teacher mentor needs to be better understood. The NCLBA has revised criteria for alternative certification programs that would require this type of program to have "teacher mentors in order for those teachers to be considered high qualified" ( United States General Accounting Office, 2003 , p. 10). The apparent discrepancy between the findings of this study and that of other researchers suggests the need for further research on the benefits of teacher mentors and on what factors tend to enhance the value of teacher mentoring experiences.

Researchers should continue to study the relationship between types of teacher certification and teachers' intentions to remain in the field. Equally important would be research on which components of teacher preparation influence retention. Within this area of study, it would be helpful to better understand the factors influencing retention of teachers in urban and rural settings, where many alternatively certified teachers find their first jobs.

A longitudinal study should be conducted to compare the likelihood of retention of traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers with varying levels of preparation. The findings of this study suggest that better preparation in classroom management and in working with students with disabilities would be helpful to beginning teachers. The impact of improved preparation in these areas may be demonstrated in retention data. A study of this type would reveal concerns of traditionally and alternatively certified CTE teachers and provide guidance for potential teacher candidates.

Alternative teacher certification programs can help to alleviate critical teacher shortages. However, these programs must offer high quality preparation so that newly certified teachers can be effective in the classroom and will want to stay in the field. The NCLBA legislation should help to spur initiatives to assure that alternatively certified teachers are fully qualified and feel ready for the challenges of classroom teaching.

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Author Notes

This research project was part of the program of work of the National Research Center for Career and Technical Education at the University of Minnesota funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education entitled "Alternative Teacher Certification Procedures and Professional Development Opportunities for Career and Technical Education Teachers." The authors acknowledge Dr. Ray Narveson for his assistance with the data analysis.

Sheila K. Ruhland is Assistant Professor in the Department of Work, Community, and Family Education, University of Minnesota, 420 Vocational Technical Education Building, 1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108. E-mail: ruhla006@umn.edu .

Christine D. Bremer is Program Coordinator in the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, 6 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail: breme006@umn.edu .